AP Lang Terms

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama.
However, this is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres
themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies,
autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy,
comedy, melodrama, farce, etc.

From the Greek for “good speech,” these are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. They may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement.

The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. For example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,ca” it involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule
someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements. When well done, it can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. This makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually this is unstated in fictional works, but in
nonfiction, it may be directly state, especially in expository or argumentative writing.

The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in “she sells sea
shells”). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, you can look for this in any essay passage. This can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

A second type of subject complement - a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. For example, in the sentence "Abe Lincoln was a man of integrity," the predicate nominative is "man of integrity," as it renames Abe Lincoln. Occasionally, this term or the term predicate adjective appears in a multiple-choice question.

A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar
objects. This displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. It is similar to diction, but you can
differentiate them by thinking of this as groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words.

Similar to mood, it describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. It is easier to determine
in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in
identifying an author’s _____.

A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place,
or work of art. These can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and
a work may simultaneously use multiple layers.

The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. These may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” this is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it.

A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, it is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature,
hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of it are varied, depending on the writer’s goal, but if it is used well,
often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition.

From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” it is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo shrimp” and “cruel kindness.” This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay.

One type of subject complement - an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies or describes the subject. For example, in the sentence "My boyfriend is tall, dark, and handsome," the group of predicate adjectives ("tall, dark, and handsome") describes boyfriend.

The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing. These give a work a conversational, familiar tone. When this is used in writing it includes local or regional dialects.

From the Greek for “reckoning together,” a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called “major” and the second called “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows: major premise: All men are mortal. minor premise: Socrates is a man. conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.
A syllogism’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea
first (“Socrates”) and the general second (“all men”).

An explicit comparison, normally using like, as or if. For example, remember Robbie Burns' famous lines, "O, my love is like a red, red rose. That's newly sprung in June. O, my love is like a melody, that's sweetly played in tune.

The consideration of style has two purposes:
(1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other
literary devices. Some authors’ styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author.
We can analyze and describe an author’s personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author’s
purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc.
(2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification
and comparison, we can see how an author’s style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the
Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental, or realist
movement.

A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. This is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. It
exploits peculiarities of an author’s expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.)
If it is well-written it offers enlightenment about the original, but if it is poorly written it offers only ineffectual imitation.
Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, they will take on a life of their own and don’t require knowledge of the original.

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented.

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical
level, it uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and
deeper level, however, it can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman’s cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use this complexly while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile.

A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains
some degree of truth or validity.

A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. It can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. It can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is “overshoot.” These often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, they produce irony. The opposite is understatement.

From the Greek, didactic literally means “teaching.” These words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) This can be a memorable summation of the author’s point.

Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, it cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought.

The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect this. It is similar to tone and atmosphere.

This term describes traditions for each genre. These help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing.

A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. These include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually it is something concrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene – that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories:
(1) natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them (dawn
symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge).
(2) conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross
or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for
pirates or the scale of justice for lawyers).
(3) literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are more
generally recognized. However, a work’s symbols may be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness.
On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in
representing that abstraction.

The ironic minimalizing of fact, presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. This is the opposite of hyperbole.

An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish (language that
might be described as “show-offy”; using big words for the sake of using big words).

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to
be and what is actually true. It is often used to create poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types of
this used in language:
(1) when the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s) meaning
(2) when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen
(3) when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

In expository writing, this statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven the what he thinks.

The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause,
sentence, or grammatical pattern.

The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning “beside one
another.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural
similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal
phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities is an example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of
times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of
incredulity....”)

From the Latin meaning "to or against the man," this is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, to feeling rather than intellect.

A question that is asked merely for effect and does not expect a reply. The answer is assumed.

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.

This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The
four most common are as follows:
(1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea,
relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository
topics.
(2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning,
discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having
an additional aim of urging some form of action.
(3) The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader
can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive
writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly
emotional an subjective.
(4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses
the tools of descriptive writing.

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb.

An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by
dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause,
the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing this often seems informal, relaxed, or
conversational.

The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.

A ________ developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, these effectively signal a shift from one idea to another.

The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of this is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence.

A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such
words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur.

This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving
moral or spiritual advice.

In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of this, and many subdivisions within those.
(1) first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character in the story. This narrator
can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character.
(2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and “it.” There are two main
subdivisions to be aware of:
a. third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of
any or all characters
b. third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one
character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters.

The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the
author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the
atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events.

Related to style, this refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or
effectiveness.

From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and
persuasively.

In modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. These statements are humorous, while
suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. It usually uses terse language that
makes a pointed statement. Historically, it originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed
of understanding, and finally, it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate
an answer that demanded the same quick perception.

The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the predicate adjective). These are defined below: (1) the predicate nominative – a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the
predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star.
movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject, Julia Roberts (2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb.
It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject. Example: Warren remained optimistic. optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the subject, Warren

A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty
or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee.” Another example is Keats’ “Ode to a Grecian Urn,” in which Keats addresses the urn itself: “Thou still unravished bride of quietness.”

One of the major divisions of genre, _____ refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms. In this the printer
determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.